How climate-ready are Indian cities?

Introduction

The Cities Readiness Report 2023 showed that more than 75% of India's urban population is prone to one of these major climate risks: cyclones, extreme heatwaves, water stress, city flooding, or droughts. This puts India’s urban population under constant climate vulnerability, where a lack of sufficient systematic urban planning, infrastructure development, and the preparedness of cities has exacerbated the impacts of climate change. This brings us to the question of whether India’s existing urban planning laws and governance frameworks are even equipped to make cities and the lives of people climate-ready.

Cities on the frontline of climate stress

Urban flooding and intense rainfall. Heavy monsoon rains, inadequate drainage systems and rapid urbanisation make urban Indian cities vulnerable to flooding almost every year. Mumbai, for instance, in 2021, recorded severe urban flooding which disrupted transport, damaged property, put a halt to people's lives and the city's economy. With concrete structures and encroachment on water bodies, the urban vulnerability to floods extends beyond control.

Extreme heat and heatwaves. Rising temperatures and the urban heat island effect make heatwaves a growing threat to cities like Delhi, Ahmedabad, and Chennai, which record extremely high temperatures that endanger public health, particularly among the elderly and outdoor workers. With limited green cover, densely compacted buildings, and a lack of heat-resilient infrastructure, the impact of these heat events is exacerbated.

Water stress and drought. Urban India faces serious issues as a result of inadequate availability of water for many people who live in large cities and smaller towns. Rapid population growth, over-extraction of groundwater, and poor water management have created extreme levels of water stress, particularly in cities such as Bengaluru, Chennai, and Lucknow. The Central Ground Water Board studied 712 districts in India. Of these, 102 have been identified as over-exploited, where water is being taken from the ground faster than it can be replenished.

When all of these continually worsening issues pile up, another larger issue arises;

Are there any Indian laws that will make cities climate-proof?

National policies and action plans. A myriad of ambitious policies exist at different levels of government that address climate change. The NAPCC and the SAPCCs provide examples of climate adaptation and sustainable development policies and methods. Yet, they are primarily available at the framework level and do not provide the urban planners with clear guidance on how to incorporate climate resilience into their everyday planning decisions, leaving cities to be planned according to current development priorities, which typically do not account for long-term climate risk.

Urban Governance and fragmented responsibility. The 74th Constitutional Amendment provides that municipal bodies will be responsible for urban planning and service delivery. As such, they will serve as important actors in developing climate resilience. However, in practice, urban governance is still fragmented by the fact that planning authorities, municipal corporations, and environmental regulators operate in silos, and there is inconsistent enforcement of environmental regulations. This institutional fragmentation undermines cities’ capacity to respond in advance to climate threats.

Disaster Laws for prevention. Legal structures, like the Disaster Management Act 2005, primarily focus on response and relief, as opposed to prevention. While guidelines developed by the NDMA recognise climate-based risks, these guidelines are often not put into place until after disasters occur. The lack of a strong, proactive and planning-based approach to preventing disasters means that disaster laws are not effective in developing truly climate-ready cities.

Laws and policies related to climate resilience and sustainability clearly demonstrate that India understands that climate change poses risks to urban areas. However, mere awareness of climate change risks does not guarantee climate-resilient urban development. Rather, the failure to implement these laws in a consistent and serious manner on the ground is the larger challenge.

Are Indian cities really prepared to deal with climate change?

So, while all the right policies and plans exist on paper, demonstrating that organisations have created awareness of climate risks, the reality is that cities continue to develop at a rapid rate, primarily focused on speed and density of development as opposed to considering the long-term impact and resilience of such development. Reality is different because cities function differently during extreme climate conditions. Overlapping responsibilities among municipal corporations, state agencies, and central agencies often slow action, while limited funding and technical capacity further weaken city-level preparedness. According to the World Bank: Urban Resilience Report, Indian cities may require over $2.4 trillion by 2050 for climate-resilient infrastructure, covering water supply, heat-resilient construction, and more. In this context, policies exist, but resilience remains uneven.

What is on the surface of the cities?

This break manifests itself in the experience of big cities. Mumbai is an example of a city that is affected by massive flooding every monsoon season, despite flood management plans that have been put into effect. The destruction of mangroves, settlements in natural flood drains and poor waste disposal habits against the available plans further worsen the problem.

Temperatures and air pollution are on the rise in Delhi and have been a common health concern. The majority of the at-risk population, including street workers and slum dwellers, lack access to cooling shelters, water, and information.

The effects of climate change are not urban. A good example of how cities can be exposed to numerous and overlapping problems is the rapidly developing city of Chennai, which experiences either water scarcity occurs or flooding, depending on the season. This is attributed to the erosion of water bodies, poor drainage system and uncontrolled urbanisation.

Tier 2 cities are growing fast but preparing slowly. While Tier 1 cities attract most policy attention, Tier 2 cities are expanding at an even faster pace, often with fewer resources and weaker institutional capacity. Cities like Indore, Surat, and Lucknow face rising heat stress, water pressure and flooding. These Tier 2 cities are smaller urban areas that lack attention, comprehensive climate action plans, well-staffed disaster management units and appropriate incentives. As a result, climate resilience in India cannot be achieved by focusing only on Metros; it requires coordinated planning, policy enforcement and public awareness across all urban areas, large and small.

Why city-level preparedness falters

Cities struggle to become climate-ready because of the Smart Cities Mission goals and gaps in enforcement. The 2023 Cities Readiness Report, produced by NIUA, highlights ongoing projects focused primarily on infrastructure and area-based development, rather than integrating climate resilience city-wide. WRI’s research confirms this trend as well, noting low public awareness about preparing for heat and flooding, which limits communities' ability to adapt. Additionally, the MoHUA Annual Report for 2023 shows that the government is exploring methods to provide 24/7 water supply. However, many cities are still dealing with issues of intermittent water supply, putting them at risk of drought and extreme heat conditions. Lastly, there is a lack of critical data at the local level, as hazard maps for floods and heat stress exist in only a few cities (NIUA 2021), making informed planning a distant dream as highlighted by WRI India's urban vulnerability assessment. Thus, while policies and regulations are in place, the actual challenges lie in weak institutional planning capacity, fragmented authority, lack of actionable data, and plans without implementation pathways. To make cities climate-resilient, the structural problems need to be remedied, as much as the formulation of policies.

Lessons from cities dealing with climate change

Although Indian cities are faced with challenges, there are some climate-responsive initiatives that can be improved by aligning laws, planning, and implementation. In Chennai, the Greater Chennai Corporation has increased the capacity of stormwater ponds and other water bodies as part of its monsoon flood-prevention plan.

During the recent cyclone Ditwah, these newly expanded ponds were able to hold back a large amount of runoff, thus preventing flooding in previously flooded areas. Similarly, cities such as Gurgaon are now implementing technology-based flood control systems to better monitor water levels. In Uttar Pradesh, Gorakhpur is also implementing one of the first flood control systems in the country, which includes automated water level recorders and an emergency control room that operates 24/7, thus reducing response times to a great extent. The examples provided demonstrate how technological or innovative solutions can contribute to achieving a degree of climate change adaptation, even though there is a limited range of adaptation strategies.

Conclusion

Developing a climate-resilient city starts with connecting decision-makers to those who will execute their decisions. Although some guidance exists, moving forward means breaking down structural silos between organisations, building large infrastructure, and transitioning from a reactive disaster response strategy to a more proactive planning approach. Smart growth should focus instead on resilient survival. This means implementing practical solutions at the national level. Most metropolitan areas and rapidly developing tier 2 cities can survive climate-related threats if communities develop preparedness plan. However, only cities that implement such plans will survive the climate crisis.